The Inscriptions and Sources

The literary Sources

• Albius Tibullus – Elegies
• Claudius Ptolemaeus – Géographie
• Florus – Abridged Roman History
• Julius Caesar – Gallic Wars 
• Pliny the Elder – Natural History
• Plutarch – Parallel Lives of Illustrious Men: Life of Caesar
• Strabo – Geography
• Titus Livius (Livy) – Roman History

The Inscriptions

• Bologna Inscription
• Bath Inscription
• Lyon Inscription
• Lyon Inscription
• Lyon Inscription
• Lyon Inscription
• Orleans Inscription
• Orleans Inscription
• Orleans Inscription
• Vienne-en-Val Inscription
• Neuvy-en-Sullias Inscription
• Champoulet Inscription
• Sceaux-du-Gatinais Inscription
• The Sedatus Text
• Mandronius Inscription

Albius Tibullus

This day was sung by the Fates who spin the plots of Destiny, which no God can break, this day which was to rout the peoples of Aquitaine, to make Aude tremble, vanquished by a valiant soldier . (5) The oracle is fulfilled: Roman youth have seen new triumphs and captive leaders with bound arms; and you, Messalla, father of the victor’s laurels, you were carried on an ivory chariot with horses the color of snow. I was with you when you deserved these honors: the Pyrenees of the Tarbelles are witnesses, (10) as well as the shores of the Santonic ocean; witness the Saône and the rapid Rhône, and the Grande Garonne and the Loire, the blue wave of blond Carnute.

Tibullus, Elegies, I.7, Translation by M. Rat, Tibulle. Works, Paris, Garnier Frères, 1931

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Claudius Ptolemaeus

By the Sequana River the Carnutes and their cities: Autricum 21°40′ . 48°15′ Cenabum 22°00′ . 47°50′
Below these the Parisi and their city Parisian Lucotecia 23°30′ . 48°30′
Below these the Tricasii and their city Augustobona 23°15′ . 47°45′

Ptolemaeus, Géographie, 02, 8, 10, translated by Brady Kiesling from the Greek texts of Karl Nobbe (1843) and Karl Muller (1883)

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Florus

The greatest, and at the same time the last, of all the risings in Gaul, took place when Vercingetorix, a chief formidable alike for his stature, his skill in arms, and his courage, endowed too with a name which seemed to be intended to inspire terror, formed a league alike of the Arverni and Bituriges, and at the same time of the Carnuntes and Sequani. He at their festivals and councils, when he found them collected in their greatest crowds in their groves, roused them by his ferocious harangues to vindicate their ancient rights of freedom. Caesar was absent at the time holding a levy at Ravenna, and the Alps had been swollen by winter snows; hence they thought that his passage was blocked. But Caesar, starting just as he was on the receipt of the news, by a most successful act of daring made his way across Gaul with a light-armed force through ranges of mountains never before crossed and over ways and snows never trodden before, and collected his troops from distant winter quarters and was in the middle of Gaul before the terror of his approach had reached its borders. Attacking the cities which were the headquarters of the enemy’s forces, he burnt to the ground Avaricum, which was defended by 40,000 men, and Alesia, which had a garrison of 250,. All the most important operations were concentrated round Gergovia in the territory of the Averni. This mighty city, defended by a wall and citadel and steep river-banks, had a garrison of 80,000 men. Caesar, surrounding it with a rampart, a palisade and a trench, into which he admitted water from the river, and also eighteen towers and a huge breastwork, first reduced it by starvation; and then, when the defenders attempted to make sallies, cut them down at the ramparts and palisades, and finally reduced them to surrender. The king himself, to crown the victory, came as a suppliant to the camp, and placing before Caesar his horse and its trapping and his own arms, exclaimed, “Receive these spoils; thou thyself, bravest of men, hast conquered a brave enemy.”

Lucius Annaeus Florus, The Epitome of Roman History, The Gallic War, 3.11, Loeb Classical Library,
1929

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Julius Caesar

These things being achieved, [and] all Gaul being subdued, so high an opinion of this war was spread among the barbarians, that embassadors were sent to Caesar by those nations who dwelt beyond the Rhine , to promise that they would give hostages and execute his commands. Which embassies Caesar, because he was hastening into Italy and Illyricum , ordered to return to him at the beginning of the following summer. He himself, having led his legions into winter quarters among the Carnutes, the Andes, and the Turones , which states were close to those regions in which he had waged war, set out for Italy; and a thanksgiving of fifteen days was decreed for those achievements, upon receiving Caesar’s letter; [an honor] which before that time had been conferred on none.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 2.35,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

There was among the Carnutes a man named Tasgetius, born of very high rank, whose ancestors had held the sovereignty in his state. To him Caesar had restored the position of his ancestors, in consideration of his prowess and attachment toward him, because in all his wars he had availed himself of his valuable services. His personal enemies had killed him when in the third year of his reign, many even of his own state being openly promoters [of that act] This event is related to Caesar. He fearing, because several were involved in the act, that the state might revolt at their instigation, orders Lucius Plancus, with a legion, to proceed quickly from Belgium to the Carnutes, and winter there, and arrest and send to him the persons by whose instrumentality he should discover that Tasgetius was slain. In the mean time, he was apprised by all the lieutenants and questors to whom he had assigned the legions, that they had arrived in winter-quarters, and that the place for the quarters was fortified.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 5.25,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

In opposition to those things, Titurius exclaimed, “That they would do this too late, when greater forces of the enemy, after a junction with the Germans, should have assembled; or when some disaster had been received in the neighboring winter-quarters; that the opportunity for deliberating was short; that he believed that Caesar had set forth into Italy, as the Carnutes would not otherwise have taken the measure of slaying Tasgetius, nor would the Eburones, if he had been present, have come to the camp with so great defiance of us; that he did not regard the enemy, but the fact, as the authority; that the Rhine was near; that the death of Ariovistus and our previous victories were subjects of great indignation to the Germans; that Gaul was inflamed, that after having received so many defeats she was reduced under the sway of the Roman people, her pristine glory in military matters being extinguished.” Lastly, “who would persuade himself of this, that Ambiorix had resorted to a design of that nature without sure grounds? That his own opinion was safe on either side; if there be nothing very formidable, they would go without danger to the nearest legion; if all Gaul conspired with the Germans, their only safety lay in dispatch. What issue would the advice of Cotta and of those who differed from him, have? from which, if immediate danger was not to be dreaded, yet certainly famine, by a protracted siege, was

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 5.29,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

When he perceived that they were coming to him voluntarily; that on the one side the Senones and the Carnutes were stimulated by their consciousness of guilt, on the other side the Nervii and the Aduatuci were preparing war against the Romans, and that forces of volunteers would not be wanting to him if he began to advance from his own territories, he proclaims an armed council (this according to the custom of the Gauls in the commencement of war) at which, by a common law, all the youth were wont to assemble in arms, whoever of them comes last is killed in the sight of the whole assembly after being racked with every torture. In that council he declares Cingetorix, the leader of the other faction, his own son-in-law (whom we have above mentioned, as having embraced the protection of Caesar, and never having deserted him) an enemy and confiscates his property. When these things were finished, he asserts in the council that he, invited by the Senones and the Carnutes, and several other states of Gaul, was about to march thither through the territories of the Remi, devastate their lands, and attack the camp of Labienus: before he does that, he informs them of what he desires to be done.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 5.56,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

Indutiomarus having been slain, as we have stated, the government was conferred upon his relatives by the Treviri . They cease not to importune the neighboring Germans and to promise them money: when they could not obtain [their object] from those nearest them, they try those more remote. Having found some states willing to accede to their wishes, they enter into a compact with them by a mutual oath, and give hostages as a security for the money: they attach Ambiorix to them by an alliance and confederacy. Caesar, on being informed of their acts, since he saw that war was being prepared on all sides, that the Nervii, Aduatuci, and Menapii, with the addition of all the Germans on this side of the Rhine were under arms, that the Senones did not assemble according to his command, and were concerting measures with the Carnutes and the neighboring states, that the Germans were importuned by the Treviri in frequent embassies, thought that he ought to take measures for the war earlier [than usual].

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 6.02,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

Accordingly, while the winter was not yet ended, having concentrated the four nearest legions, he marched unexpectedly into the territories of the Nervii, and before they could either assemble or retreat, after capturing a large number of cattle and of men, and wasting their lands and giving up that booty to the soldiers, compelled them to enter into a surrender and give him hostages. That business having been speedily executed, he again led his legions back into winter-quarters. Having proclaimed a council of Gaul in the beginning of the spring, as he had been accustomed [to do], when the deputies from the rest, except the Senones , the Carnutes, and the Treviri , had come, judging this to be the commencement of war and revolt, that he might appear to consider all things of less consequence [than that war], he transfers the council to Lutetia of the Parisii . These were adjacent to the Senones , and had united their state to them during the memory of their fathers, but were thought to have no part in the present plot. Having proclaimed this from the tribunal, he advances the same day toward the Senones with his legions, and arrives among them by long marches.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 6.03,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

Acco, who had been the author of that enterprise, on being informed of his arrival, orders the people to assemble in the towns; to them, while attempting this, and before it could be accomplished, news is brought that the Romans are close at hand: through necessity they give over their design and send embassadors to Caesar for the purpose of imploring pardon; they make advances to him through the Aedui, whose state was from ancient times under the protection of Rome . Caesar readily grants them pardon, and receives their excuse, at the request of the Aedui, because he thought that the summer season was one for an impending war, not for an investigation. Having imposed one hundred hostages, he delivers these to the Aedui to be held in charge by them. To the same place the Carnutes send embassadors and hostages, employing as their mediators the Remi, under whose protection they were: they receive the same answers. Caesar concludes the council and imposes a levy of cavalry on the states.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 6.04,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

Throughout all Gaul there are two orders of those men who are of any rank and dignity: for the commonality is held almost in the condition of slaves, and dares to undertake nothing of itself, and is admitted to no deliberation. The greater part, when they are pressed either by debt, or the large amount of their tributes, or the oppression of the more powerful, give themselves up in vassalage to the nobles, who possess over them the same rights without exception as masters over their slaves. But of these two orders, one is that of the Druids, the other that of the knights. The former are engaged in things sacred, conduct the public and the private sacrifices, and interpret all matters of religion. To these a large number of the young men resort for the purpose of instruction, and they [the Druids] are in great honor among them. For they determine respecting almost all controversies, public and private; and if any crime has been perpetrated, if murder has been committed, if there be any dispute about an inheritance, if any about boundaries, these same persons decide it; they decree rewards and punishments; if any one, either in a private or public capacity, has not submitted to their decision, they interdict him from the sacrifices. This among them is the most heavy punishment. Those who have been thus interdicted are esteemed in the number of the impious and the criminal: all shun them, and avoid their society and conversation, lest they receive some evil from their contact; nor is justice administered to them when seeking it, nor is any dignity bestowed on them. Over all these Druids one presides, who possesses supreme authority among them. Upon his death, if any individual among the rest is pre-eminent in dignity, he succeeds; but, if there are many equal, the election is made by the suffrages of the Druids; sometimes they even contend for the presidency with arms. These assemble at a fixed period of the year in a consecrated place in the territories of the Carnutes, which is reckoned the central region of the whole of Gaul. Hither all, who have disputes, assemble from every part, and submit to their decrees and determinations. This institution is supposed to have been devised in Britain, and to have been brought over from it into Gaul; and now those who desire to gain a more accurate knowledge of that system generally proceed thither for the purpose of studying it.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 6.13,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

Having devastated the country in such a manner, Caesar leads back his army with the loss of two cohorts to Durocortorum of the Remi, and, having summoned a council of Gaul to assemble at that place, he resolved to hold an investigation respecting the conspiracy of the Senones and Carnutes, and having pronounced a most severe sentence upon Acco, who had been the contriver of that plot, he punished him after the custom of our ancestors. Some fearing a trial, fled; when he had forbidden these fire and water, he stationed in winter quarters two legions at the frontiers of the Treviri , two among the Lingones , the remaining six at Agendicum, in the territories of the Senones ; and, having provided corn for the army, he set out for Italy, as he had determined, to hold the assizes.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 6.44,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

While these things are in agitation, the Carnutes declare “that they would decline no danger for the sake of the general safety, and promise” that they would be the first of all to begin the war; and since they can not at present take precautions, by giving and receiving hostages, that the affair shall not be divulged, they require that a solemn assurance be given them by oath and plighted honor, their military standards being brought together (in which manner their most sacred obligations are made binding), that they should not be deserted by the rest of the Gauls on commencing the war.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 7.02,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

When the appointed day came, the Carnutes, under the command of Cotuatus and Conetodunus, desperate men, meet together at Genabum , and slay the Roman citizens who had settled there for the purpose of trading (among the rest, Caius Fusius Cita, a distinguished Roman knight, who by Caesar’s orders had presided over the provision department), and plunder their property. The report is quickly spread among all the states of Gaul; for, whenever a more important and remarkable event takes place, they transmit the intelligence through their lands and districts by a shout; the others take it up in succession, and pass it to their neighbors, as happened on this occasion; for the things which were done at Genabum at sunrise, were heard in the territories of the Arverni before the end of the first watch, which is an extent of more than a hundred and sixty miles.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 7.03,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

On the second day, when he came to Vellaunodunum, a town of the Senones , he determined to attack it, in order that he might not leave an enemy in his rear, and might the more easily procure supplies of provisions, and draw a line of circumvallation around it in two days: on the third day, embassadors being sent from the town to treat of a capitulation, he orders their arms to be brought together, their cattle to be brought forth, and six hundred hostages to be given. He leaves Caius Trebonius his lieutenant, to complete these arrangements; he himself sets out with the intention of marching as soon as possible, to Genabum , a town of the Carnutes, who having then for the first time received information of the siege of Vellaunodunum, as they thought that it would be protracted to a longer time, were preparing a garrison to send to Genabum for the defense of that town. Caesar arrived here in two days; after pitching his camp before the town, being prevented by the time of the day, he defers the attack to the next day, and orders his soldiers to prepare whatever was necessary for that enterprise; and as a bridge over the Loire connected the town of Genabum with the opposite bank, fearing lest the inhabitants should escape by night from the town, he orders two legions to keep watch under arms. The people of Genabum came forth silently from the city before midnight, and began to cross the river. When this circumstance was announced by scouts, Caesar, having set fire to the gates, sends in the legions which he had ordered to be ready, and obtains possession of the town so completely, that very few of the whole number of the enemy escaped being taken alive, because the narrowness of the bridge and the roads prevented the multitude from escaping. He pillages and burns the town, gives the booty to the soldiers, then leads his army over the Loire , and marches into the territories of the Bituriges.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 7.11,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

While those things are carried on at Alesia , the Gauls, having convened a council of their chief nobility, determine that all who could bear arms should not be called out, which was the opinion of Vercingetorix, but that a fixed number should be levied from each state; lest, when so great a multitude assembled together, they could neither govern nor distinguish their men, nor have the means of supplying them with corn. They demand thirty-five thousand men from the Aedui and their dependents, the Segusiani, Ambivareti, and Aulerci Brannovices; an equal number from the Arverni in conjunction with the Eleuteti Cadurci, Gabali, and Velauni, who were accustomed to be under the command of the Arverni; twelve thousand each from the Senones , Sequani, Bituriges, Sentones, Ruteni, and Carnutes; ten thousand from the Bellovaci; the same number from the Lemovici; eight thousand each from the Pictones, and Turoni , and Parisii , and Helvii; five thousand each from the Suessiones, Ambiani, Mediomatrici, Petrocorii, Nervii, Morini, and Nitiobriges; the same number from the Aulerci Cenomani; four thousand from the Atrebates; three thousand each from the Bellocassi, Lexovii, and Aulerci Eburovices; thirty thousand from the Rauraci, and Boii; six thousand from all the states together, which border on the Atlantic, and which in their dialect are called Armoricae (in which number are comprehended the Curisolites, Rhedones, Ambibari, Caltes, Osismii, Lemovices , Veneti, and Unelli). Of these the Bellovaci did not contribute their number, as they said that they would wage war against the Romans on their own account, and at their own discretion, and would not obey the order of any one: however, at the request of Commius, they sent two thousand, in consideration of a tie of hospitality which subsisted between him and them.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 7.75,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

Caius Fabius set off with the rest of the army to the Carnutes and those other states, whose force he was informed, had served as auxiliaries in that battle, which he fought against Dumnacus. For he had no doubt that they would be more submissive after their recent sufferings, but if respite and time were given them, they might be easily excited by the earnest solicitations of the same Dumnacus. On this occasion Fabius was extremely fortunate and expeditious in recovering the states. For the Carnutes, who, though often harassed had never mentioned peace, submitted and gave hostages: and the other states, which lie in the remotest parts of Gaul, adjoining the ocean, and which are called Armoricae, influenced by the example of the Carnutes, as soon as Fabius arrived with his legions, without delay comply with his command. Dumnacus, expelled from his own territories, wandering and skulking about, was forced to seek refuge by himself in the most remote parts of Gaul.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 8.31,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

In the mean time, Caesar left Caius Antonius in the country of the Bellovaci, with fifteen cohorts, that the Belgae might have no opportunity of forming new plans in future. He himself visits the other states, demands a great number of hostages, and by his encouraging language allays the apprehensions of all. When he came to the Carnutes, in whose state he has in a former commentary mentioned that the war first broke out; observing, that from a consciousness of their guilt, they seemed to be in the greatest terror: to relieve the state the sooner from its fear, he demanded that Guturvatus, the promoter of that treason, and the instigator of that rebellion, should be delivered up to punishment. And though the latter did not dare to trust his life even to his own countrymen, yet such diligent search was made by them all, that he was soon brought to our camp. Caesar was forced to punish him, by the clamors of the soldiers, contrary to his natural humanity, for they alleged that all the dangers and losses incurred in that war, ought to be imputed to Guturvatus. Accordingly, he was whipped to death, and his head cut off.

Julius Caesar, Gallic War 8.38,  Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper’s New Classical Library.

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Pliny

To Gallia Lugdunensis belong the Lexovii, Veliocasses, Caleti, Veneti, Abrincatui, Ossismi, the famous river Liger, and also the still more remarkable peninsula that runs out into the ocean from the boundary of the Ossismi and measures 625 miles round and 125 miles across at its neck. Beyond that neck are the Namnetes, and in the interior the Aedui (federated), Carnuteni (federated), Boii, Senones, Aulerci ( both those named Eburovices and those named Cenomani ), Meldi (free), Parisii, Tricasses, Andicavi, Viducasses, Bodiocasses, Venelli, Coriosvelites, Diablinti, Rhedones, Turones, Atesui, and Segusiavi (free), in whose territory is the colony of Lugdunum.

Pliny, Natural History, 4.107, Translated by H.Rackham (1952)

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Plutarch

The numerous revolts of the Gauls in those parts were quieted by this success, as well as by the fact that Caesar himself, during the winter, went about in all directions and kept close watch on the disturbers of the peace. For there had come from Italy three legions to replace the men that he had lost, Pompey having lent two of those under his command, and one having been newly levied in Gaul about the Po. But in remoter regions​ the germs of the greatest and most dangerous of the wars waged in those parts began to show themselves. They had for a long time been secretly sown and cultivated by the most influential men among the most warlike tribes, and derived strength from large bodies of young men assembled from all sides in arms, from great riches brought together, from strong cities, and from countries which were hard to invade. At that season of winter, too, frozen rivers, forests buried in snow, plains converted into lakes by winter torrents, in some parts paths obliterated by deep snow, and in others the great uncertainty of a march through swamps and streams diverted from their courses, all seemed to make it wholly impossible for Caesar to oppose the plans of the rebels. Accordingly, many tribes had revolted, but the head and front of the revolt were the Arverni and Carnuntini, and Vergentorix​ was chosen to have the entire authority in the war. His father the Gauls had put to death because they thought he was aiming at a tyranny.

Plutarch , Parallel Lives of Illustrious Men : Life of Caesar, 25, Loeb Classical Library edition,
1919

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Stabro

After the Elvetii, along the Rhenus, dwell the Sequani and the Mediomatrici, in whose territory are situated the Tribocchi, a Germanic tribe which crossed the river from their homeland. Mount Jura is in the territory of the Sequani; it marks the boundary between the Elvetii and the Sequani. So it is beyond the Elvetii and the Sequani, towards the west, that the Aedui and the Lingones dwell; and beyond the Mediomatrici, that the Leuci and a part of the Lingones dwell. But those tribes between the Liger and the Sequana Rivers that are on the far side of the Rhodanus and the Arar are situated side by side, towards the north, with both the Allobroges and the people round Lugdunum; and of these tribes the most conspicuous are those of the Arverni and the Carnutes, through both of whose territories the Liger runs on its way out to the ocean. The passage across to Britain from the rivers of Celtica is three hundred and twenty stadia; for if you put to sea on the ebb-tide at nightfall, you land upon the island about the eighth hour on the following day. After the Mediomatrici and the Tribocchi, along the Rhenus, dwell the Treveri, near whom the bridge has been built by the Roman officers who are now conducting the Germanic war.​ The Ubii used to live opposite this region, across the Rhenus, though by their own consent they were transferred by Agrippa to the country this side the Rhenus. Next after the Treveri are the Nervii, who are also a Germanic tribe. Last come the Menapii, who dwell on both sides of the river near its mouths, in marshes and woods (not of tall timber, but dense and thorny). It is opposite to these that the Sugambri are situated, a Germanic people. But beyond this whole river-country are those Germans who are called the Suevi and excel all the others in power and numbers (the people driven out by the Suevi in our time have been fleeing for refuge to this side of the Rhenus). And other peoples, also, lord it in different places, and in their turn take up the tinders of war, but the foremost are always put down.

Strabo Geography, 4,3,4 The Geography of Strabo published in Vol. II of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1923

The Arverni are situated on the Liger; their metropolis is Nemossus,​ a city situated on the Liger. This river, after flowing past Cenabum (the emporium of the Carnutes at about the middle of the voyage,​ an emporium that is jointly peopled),​ discharges its waters towards the ocean. As for their former power, the Arverni hold out as a great proof thereof the fact that they oftentimes warred against the Romans, at times with two hundred thousand men, and again, with double that number — with double that number, for example, when they, with Vercingetorix, struggled to a finish against the Deified Caesar; and, before that, also, with two hundred thousand against Maximus Aemilianus, and also, in like manner, against Dometius​Ahenobarbus. Now the struggles against Caesar took place near Gergovia (a city of the Arverni, situated on a high mountain), where Vercingetorix was born, and also near Alesia (a city of the Mandubii — a tribe which has a common boundary with the Arverni — and this city too is situated on a high hill, although it is surrounded by mountains and two rivers), in which not only the commander was captured but the war had its end. But the struggles against Maximus Aemilianus took place at the confluence of the Isar and the Rhodanus, where the Cemmenus Mountain approaches closely the Rhodanus; and against Dometius Ahenobarbus, at a place still lower down the Rhodanus, at the confluence of the Sulgas and the Rhodanus. Again, the Arverni not only had extended their empire as far as Narbo and the boundaries of Massiliotis, but they were also masters of the tribes as far as the Pyrenees, and as far as the ocean and the Rhenus. Luerius, the father of the Bituitus who warred against Maximus and Dometius, is said to have been so exceptionally rich and extravagant that once, when making a display of his opulence to his friends, he rode on a carriage through a plain, scattering gold and silver coins here and there, for his followers to pick up.

Strabo Geography, 4,2,3 The Geography of Strabo published in Vol. II of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1923

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Titus Livius (Livy)

About the passage of the Gauls into Italy we have received the following account. Whilst Tarquinius Priscus was king of Rome, the supreme power amongst the Celts, who formed a third part of the whole of Gaul, was in the hands of the Bituriges; they used to furnish the king for the whole Celtic race. Ambigatus was king at that time, a man eminent for his own personal courage and prosperity as much as for those of his dominions. During his sway the harvests were so abundant and the population increased so rapidly in Gaul that the government of such vast numbers seemed almost impossible. He was now an old man, and anxious to relieve his realm from the burden of over-population. With this view he signified his intention of sending his sister’s sons Bellovesus and Segovesus, both enterprising young men, to settle in whatever locality the gods should by augury assign to them. They were to invite as many as wished to accompany them, sufficient to prevent any nation from repelling their approach. When the auspices were taken, the Hercynian forest was assigned to Segovesus; to Bellovesus the gods gave the far pleasanter way into Italy. He invited the surplus population of six tribes —the Bituriges, the Averni, the Senones, the Aedui, the Ambarri, the Carnutes, and the Aulerci. Starting with an enormous force of horse and foot, he came to the Tricastini.

Livy. History of Rome 5.34, English Translation by. Rev. Canon Roberts. New York, New York. E. P. Dutton and Co. 1912. 1. Livy. History of Rome. English Translation. Rev. Canon Roberts. New York, New York. E. P. Dutton and Co. 1912.

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Bologna Inscription (CIL 11, 716)

“To the Gods Manes of Publius Vettius Perennis, carnute, of the province of Lyonnaise, duumviral priest. Iucundus and Hermes, his freedmen, took care to make (this monument).”

D(IS) M(ANIBVS) P(VBLIO) VETTIO PERENNI CARNVTINO EX PROVINCIA LVGDVNENSI DV(V)MVIRALI SACERDOT(I) IVCVNDVS ET HERMES LIB(ERTI) F(ACIVNDVM) C(VRAVERVNT )

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Bath Inscription (RIB-01, 149)

“To the Goddess Sulis. Priscus, son of Toutus (?), lapidary, carnut citizen, has fulfilled his vow, willingly, as it should.”

PRISCVS TOVTI(!) F(ILIVS) LAPIDARIV[S] CIVE<I=E>S CAR[NV]TENVS SV[LI] DEAE V(OTVM) [S(OLVIT) L (IBENS) M(ERITO)]

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Lyon inscription (CIL 13, 1672)

“To Fortuna Redux and Victory. To Augustus [?] Carn[…]”
“Titus Iulius [?], carnute, who exercised the priesthood at the confluence of the Arar and Rhodanus, aged only [?].”

FORTVNAE R]EDVCI [ET VICTORIAE(?) A]VGVSTI […]VS CARN[… // T(ITO) IVLIO […] CARN[VTO] QVI SACE[RDOTIVM AD CONFLVENTES ARARIS AND RHODANI ANNOS HABENS […

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Lyon Inscription (CIL 13, 1694)

“To Caius Iulius [?], carnute, ready to be at the altar of Rome and of the Augusti, arrived among his own at all the honors, who gave [?] of the entire cens of Gaul. The Three Provinces of Gaul (raised this monument).”

C(AIO) IVLIO MA[…] CARNVT(INO) SA[CERD(OTI) AD ARAM R]OMAE ET AV[GVSTORVM O]MNIBVS HON[ORIB(VS) APVD] SVOS FVNCTO [QVI (?)] TOTIVS CENS[VS GALLIARVM] DEDI[T TR]ES PRO[V]INC[IAE GALLIAE]

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Lyon Inscription (CIL 13, 2010)

“To the Gods Manes and to the eternal memory of Littavis, merchant of saies, carnute citizen. Macidula, to her very dear husband, triumvir (?), during his lifetime (?), (?), very good and very affectionate, have taken care to pose (this monument) and under the ascia dedicated it.”

D(IS) M(ANIBVS) ET MEMORIAE AETERN(AE) LIT<T=I>AVI(?) NE<G=C>O[TIA]<T=CH>ORIS SAGARI (?) C<IV=OC>I(?) CARNVTENO MACIDVLA CONIVGI CARISSIMO IIIVIR(?) VIVVS(?) ERAT(?) PIC(?) OPTIMO AND PIENTISSIMO PONENDVM CVRAVERVNT AND SVB ASCIA DEDICAVERVNT

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Lyon Inscription (CIL 13, 2011)

“To the Gods Manes. Lupus [?], Citizen Carnute, [?] Aviola, [?], Tertiola [?], her husband [?].”

[D(IS)] M(ANIBVS) LVPVS […] CIV(IS) CAR[NVTVS(?) …] AVIOLA […] V() PA[ ……]IETI [… TE]RTIOLAE […… CON]IVGI FIL[

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Orleans Inscription (AE 1902, 99)

“To the divine Augustus and to Mocetius, the Mocetes consecrated and established (this monument)”

DI]VO AVC(VSTO) MOCETI [S]ACRVM MOCETES [DONA]VERVN[T] [ET] POSVER[V]NT

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Orleans Inscription (CIL 13, 03067)

“(?)elius Magnus, son of Atepomarus, citizen Senon, curator of Cenabum, during his lifetime, for himself, made (this monument).”

]ELIVS MAG[NVS?] [AT]EPOMARI [F(ILIVS)] [CIVI]S SENONI[VS] [CV]RATOR CENAB[ENS(IVM)] [VI]VOS SIBI [FEC(IT)]

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Orleans Inscription (CIL, XIII, 3063)

“To August Acionna, Capillus son of Illiomarus [offered] this portico with these ornaments, in willing and right fulfillment of his vow”
AUG(ustae) ACIONNAESACRUMCAPILLUS ILLIOMARI F(ilius) PORTICUMCUM SUIS ORNAMENTIS V(otum) S(olvit) L(ibens) M(erito)

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Vienne-en-Val Inscription (AE, 1969/70, 00402)

“altar to Sulevia…discharged the vow freely as is deserved”
ar]am(?) Suleviae / [3]scae / v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito)
inscription genus / personal status: tituli sacri

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Neuvy-en-Sullias Inscription (CIL, 13, 03071)

Aug(usto) Rudiobo sacrum / cur(ia) Cassiciate d(e) s(ua) p(ecunia) d(edit) / Ser(vius) Esumagius Sacrovi<r=B> Ser(vius) Iomaglius Severus / f(aciendum) c(uraverunt)

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Champoulet Inscription (AE, 1980, 00643)

Aug(usto) sac{c}r(um) / d(e)ae Rosmer/t(a)e Dubno/caratiaci / Maross(us) Marulli / filius v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito) / d(e) s(uo) d(edit)

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Sceaux-du-Gatinais Inscription (AE, 1974, 00423)

Aug(ustae) deae / Segetae / T(itus) Marius Priscinus / v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito) / efficiendum curav(i)t / Maria Sacra fil(ia)

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The Sedatus Text – 1st-2nd Century CE

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Mandronius Inscription

360 CE
What the people of the Carnuntes offer to (these) lofty walls does not awe on account of gold or gemstone, but for the dedicatory inscription; indeed, that which gleams for the venerable name of Mandronius is admired more than the gifts of the Hydaspes.

(Quo) D CENS CARNVNTVM M (ensis) SVBLIMIBVS OFFERT
(N) ON AVRO AVT CEMMIS SIT CA (rum) AT TITVLO
(Nam) QVOD MANDRONI VENERANDO NOMINE FVLCET
MAIVS YDASPEO MVNERE SVSPICITVR

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